UNITED STATES ARMY IN THE KOREAN WAR
POLICY AND DIRECTION:
THE FIRST YEAR
by
James F. Schnabel
CENTER OF MILITARY HISTORY
UNITED STATES ARMY
WASHINGTON, D. C., 1992Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 70-6O9930
First Printed 1972-CMH Pub 20-1-1
ISBN 0-16-035955-4
This volume describes the initial direction and strategy of the first majorthough limited war that the United States was to fight on the continent of Asiain the era of global tension that followed World War II. There are markedsimilarities as well as some basic differences between the war in Korea and thewar that would follow a decade later in Southeast Asia, and certainly the studyof both is necessary to understand the limitations on armed conflict under theshadow of nuclear holocaust. One can also discern in this volume the importanceof individuals in altering the course of human events and the fate of nations,the wider concerns that preclude the massing by a world power of its militarystrength in one direction, and many other facets of the nation's recent militaryhistory it behooves all thoughtful Americans to ponder.
Colonel Schnabel's work is the third to appear in a planned 5-volume historyof the United States Army in the Korean War. It complements the detailed accountof operations from June to November 1950, South to the Naktong, North to theYalu, published in 1961, and the sequel to it still in preparation that willcover tactical operations through June 1951. The volume entitled Truce Tentand Fighting Front, published in 1966, covers the last two years of the war,and a logistical history of the Korean conflict is also scheduled to appear.
Both military and civilian students and the scholarly reading public shouldfind in this book much that is illuminating and provocative of reflection, andnot only about events that happened more than two decades ago.
Washington, D.C. JAMES L. COLLINS, JR.15 May 1971 Brigadier General, USA Chief of Military History
James F. Schnabel enlisted in the U.S. Army in July 1942 and, aftergraduation from officer candidate school, the Field Artillery School, Fort Sill,Oklahoma, was commissioned as a second lieutenant in January 1943. Remaining inthe service after World War II, he was assigned, as a captain, to the MilitaryHistory Section, GHQ, FEC, in late 1949. He served as a historian in Tokyo until1953, transferring in May 1953 to the Office of the Chief of Military History,U.S. Army, in Washington, D.C., where he remained until 1956. From 1956 until1960 as a lieutenant colonel he held the post of Chief Historian, SupremeHeadquarters, Allied Powers, Europe, and Allied Command Europe stationed inParis, France. In 1960 he returned to the Office, Chief of Military History, andbecame Historical Liaison Officer to the Office of the Chief of Staff, U.S.Army. He retired from the Army in 1964 and is presently a historian with theOffice of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
A graduate of North Idaho Teachers College, Colonel Schnabel has publishedseveral articles on the Korean War and has appeared as a guest lecturer at theArmy War College.
This book is intended to elucidate United States policy during the Korean Warand to describe the strategies and command methods by which that policy wascarried out. The major decisions that determined the United States course inKorea and continued to influence the nation's responses to Communist aggressionduring the two decades that followed were taken during the first twelve monthsof the Korean fighting. Although the war continued for another two years, nosignificant change was made in the policy developed between President Truman'sdecision to intervene in June 1950 and the beginning of Armistice negotiationsat Kaesong in July 1951. This book concentrates on that initial period.
One of the unique aspects of the Korean War was the close control whichWashington maintained at all times over operations in the field. Routinetransactions and problems which during World War II would have been handled by atheater commander became, during Korea, matters of great concern to the nation'shighest officials in Washington. These exceptional practices were owing in largepart to the scarcity of United States military resources when the war began andto the real danger that a miscalculation in Korea might result in a full-scalewar with the Soviet Union and/or Communist China. The vast distance betweenWashington and the Far East served to hinder effective, timely communication,further complicating the problems of directing the war.
I was not aware of it at the time, but work on this book began three daysafter the North Korean invasion when I, as an Army captain of artillery assignedto the Historical Branch, G-2, GHQ, FEC, in Tokyo, was called to GeneralMacArthur's personal file room in the Dai Ichi Building to examine copies offirst teleconferences between CINCFE and Washington. Notes taken that day markedthe beginning of nearly three years of research in Tokyo and, briefly, in Korea.Upon my return to Washington in mid-1953 I was designated to prepare the presentvolume. The first draft of this work was submitted to the Office, Chief ofMilitary History, in June 1956 concurrently with my transfer to Paris, where Iserved until June 1960 as Chief Historian, SHAPE and Allied Command Europe.Returning to the Office of the Chief of Military History in July 1960 I wasable, although assigned additional duties, to make revisions indicated as aresult of the intensive review and criticism of the manuscript that had takenplace in my four-year absence. Following my retirement from the Army in August1964 further revision was performed by Mr. Billy C. Mossman and by Dr. StetsonConn, then Chief Historian.
So many individuals have contributed to the present volume that it would beimpossible for me to thank all of them publicly. There are those, however, towhom I owe special debts of gratitude. During the early years of my work on thishistory I received particular encouragement and very wise counsel from Col.Allison R. Hartman, then Chief, Historical Branch, G-2, GHQ, FEC. Among thoseoutside critics who have reviewed all or part of the manuscript in its variousstages and to whom I am indebted for valuable comments and ideas are General J.Lawton Collins, General Matthew B. Ridgway, Lt. Gen. Edward M. Almond, Mr.Robert Amory, formerly Deputy for Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency, andMr. Wilber W. Hoare, Jr., Chief, Historical Division, Joint Chiefs of Staff.
Other individuals within the Office of the Chief of Military History whosehelp and advice have been exceptionally valuable to me include the Editor inChief, Mr. Joseph R. Friedman, whose literary guidance has contributed greatlyin the final revision of the manuscript; Mr. Charles V. P. von Luttichau, who isresponsible for the fine maps which accompany the text; Dr. Louis Morton and Dr.John Miller, jr., for their suggestions and criticism while they were with theOffice of the Chief of Military History; Mr. David Jaffe, whose diligence andskill as an editor I have good reason to appreciate; and Mrs. Stephanie B.Demma, who rendered most able assistance to Mr. Jaffe. The index was prepared byMr. Nicholas J. Anthony.
Finally, I would be remiss were I not to recognize gratefully the support Ireceived from the several Chiefs of Military History under whom I served duringthe preparation of this volume: Maj. Gen. Orlando Ward, Maj. Gen. Albert C.Smith, Brig. Gen. James A. Norell, Brig. Gen. William H. Harris, and Brig. Gen.Hal C. Pattison.
That I have acknowledged the contributions made by those persons named abovein no way implies that they share responsibility for the interpretations of thisbook or for any deficiencies that it may have. Responsibility for them is minealone.
Washington, D.C. JAMES F. SCHNABEL15 May 1971
ContentsForwardThe AuthorPrefaceI. KOREA, CASE HISTORY OF A PAWN ................................ 1 The Land ................................................... 1 Korea's Past ............................................... 2 The United States and Korea ................................ 3 Korea 1945 ................................................. 6 The New Zones .............................................. 11II. THE HOUSE DIVIDED ............... ............................ 13 The Americans Occupy South Korea ........................... 13 The Russians in North Korea ................................ 23 The United States Seeks a Solution ......................... 25 Withdrawal From Korea ...................................... 28 Building a Native Defense Force in South Korea ............. 31 North Korea Prepares ....................................... 36 Situation in Korea-June 1950 ............................... 38III. NATIONAL DEFENSE AND THE UNITED STATES ARMY ................ 41 The Army's Place in the National Defense Structure ......... 42 The Far East Command ....................................... 46IV. THE COMMUNIST CHALLENGE ...................................... 61 The Intelligence Failure ................................... 61 MacArthur's Reaction ....................................... 65 The United States Responds ................................. 66 Emergency Evacuation ....................................... 71 ADCOM Arrives in Korea ..................................... 71 Developments in Washington ................................. 72 MacArthur Visits Korea ..................................... 74 CINCFE's Personal Report ................................... 77V. EMERGENCY CONDITIONS, EMERGENCY MEASURES ...................... 80 MacArthur's Estimates ...................................... 83 The Build-up ............................................... 86VI. A NEW CONFIDENCE ............................................. 100 First Visit From Washington ................................ 105 Air Operations-July 1950 ................................... 108 The Withdrawal Continues ................................... 111VII. BOLSTERING THE FORCES ....................................... 115 Shaping the Unified Command ................................ 115 Rebuilding the U.S. Army ................................... 117 The Theater Scene - August 1950 ............................ 125VIII. OPERATION CHROMITE: THE CONCEPT AND THE PLAN ............... 139IX. OPERATION CHROMITE: THE FORCES ............................... 155 Marine Forces .............................................. 159 The 7th Division ........................................... 165 Airborne Units ............................................. 168 The Assault in Readiness ................................... 171X. CROSSING THE PARALLEL: THE DECISION AND THE PLAN .............. 173 The Tide Turns ............................................. 173 The 38th Parallel-Genesis of the Decision .................. 177 The ROK Government Returns to Seoul ........................ 184 New Operations Plans ....................................... 187 XI. THE INVASION OF NORTH KOREA ................................. 193 The United Nations Resolution of 7 October ................. 193 MacArthur's Plans Change ................................... 194 The Likelihood of Chinese Intervention ..................... 196 Eighth Army Enters North Korea ............................. 202 The X Corps Prepares ....................................... 206 A New Obstacle ............................................. 208 The Wake Island Conference ................................. 210 XII. SIGNS OF VICTORY ........................................... 215 New Plans of Advance ....................................... 215 Another Change ............................................. 218 X Corps Lands .............................................. 219 Occupation Plans ........................................... 219 The Mirage of Victory ...................................... 221XIII. THE CHINESE TAKE A HAND .................................... 233 The Chinese Move ........................................... 233 Eighth Army Grows Cautious ................................. 234 X Corps and the New Enemy .................................. 236 Immediate Effects .......................................... 237 A Time for Reappraisal ..................................... 239 The Sanctuary and Hot Pursuit .............................. 247 The Mission Is Re-examined ................................. 250XIV. THE THRESHOLD OF VICTORY .................................... 257 Eighth Army's Plans and Problems ........................... 257 The X Corps Plan ........................................... 259 The Cautious View .......................................... 266 MacArthur Attacks .......................................... 271XV. FACING NEW DILEMMAS .......................................... 274 Intervention ............................................... 274 Emergency Meeting - Tokyo .................................. 278 Collins Visits Korea ....................................... 282 MacArthur Is Warned ........................................ 284 High Level Conferences ..................................... 285XVI. THE BRINK OF DISASTER ....................................... 294 Reinforcement Prospects .................................... 294 Possibility of Evacuation .................................. 298 X Corps Is Ordered Out of North Korea ...................... 300 Ridgway Takes Over ......................................... 306 A Decision Hangs Fire ...................................... 308 The Joint Chiefs of Staff Consider Options ................. 310 Evacuation Plans ........................................... 312XVII. THE SEARCH FOR POLICY ...................................... 315 The Retaliatory Measures: An Examination ................... 317 The Joint Chiefs Visit Tokyo Again ......................... 325 Encouraging Signs in Korea ................................. 326 The 12 January Memo ........................................ 328XVIII. THE UNITED NATIONS STRIKE BACK ............................ 331 The Combat Scene ........................................... 333 The Improved Outlook ....................................... 348XIX. THE CROSSROADS .............................................. 349 The 38th Parallel Again .................................... 351 Advances in Korea .......................................... 354 Seeking More Forces ........................................ 356 President Truman Is Displeased ............................. 357 Bevin and the British View ................................. 360 Ridgway Re-enters North Korea .............................. 361XX. THE RELIEF OF MACARTHUR ...................................... 365 The Formosa Issue .......................................... 367 MacArthur's Disagreement With United States Policy in Korea 371XXI. NEW DIRECTION, NEW POLICY ................................... 378 The Chinese Offensive - 22 April ........................... 379 Missions and Responsibilities-CINCUNC ...................... 380 New Orders for CINCUNC ..................................... 382 A New Directive for CINCFE ................................. 385 The Chinese Attack Again ................................... 387 Efforts at Political Settlement ............................ 390 Rebuilding the ROK Army .................................... 394 Revision of Ridgway's Directives ........................... 395XXII. SIGNS OF ARMISTICE ......................................... 397 Political Factors Influence the Battle Line ................ 399 Moves Toward Negotiation ................................... 402 The Prognosis .............................................. 405BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE ............................................. 407LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................ 412BASIC MILITARY MAP SYMBOLS ....................................... 415Index ............................................................ 417Color MapsNo. PageI. The North Korean Invasion, 25 June-4 August 1950 .............. 61II. The Defeat of the North Korean Forces, 15-30 September 1950 .. 173III. U.N. Forces Advance to the Yalu, 30 September- 1 November 1950 ............................................. 205IV. The November Offensive, 6-26 November 1950 ................... 274V. The CCF Offensive, 25-28 November 1950 ........................ 274VI. U.N. Command on the Defensive, 31 December 1950- 24 January 1951 .............................................. 308VII. U.N. Command Strikes Back, 25 January-21 April 1951 ......... 334VIII. U.N. Command on the Defensive, 21 April-19 May 1951 ........ 380IX. U.N. Command Offensive, 20 May-24 June 1951 .................. 389Illustrations PageSyngman Rhee ..................................................... 6Kim Koo .......................................................... 6General of the Army Douglas MacArthur ............................ 15Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge ........................................... 16Parade Held by Koreans for the American Advance Party ............ 17Russian Member Addresses U.S.-USSR Commission in Seoul ........... 20South Korean Mob Protests Proposed Trusteeship ................... 21Kim Il Sung ...................................................... 23A South Korean Woman Casts Her Ballot ............................ 27Ambassador Muccio With General Coulter ........................... 28Members of the Korean Constabulary in Training at Taegu .......... 31The Joint Chiefs of Staff, November 1949 ......................... 44Dai Ichi Building, Tokyo ......................................... 48Lt. Gen. Walton H. Walker ........................................ 49Dean G. Acheson .................... ............................. 51General J. Lawton Collins ........................................ 57Louis A. Johnson ................................................. 68Maj. Gen. John H. Church ......................................... 72Generals MacArthur and Almond Confer With Ambassador Muccio ...... 75Lt. Gen. Charles L. Bolte ........................................ 76Members of the 25th Division En Route to the Battle Front on 14 July 1950 .................................................... 85Lt. Gen. George E. Stratemeyer ................................... 109Refugees Fleeing From the Combat Area Near Taegu ................. 111Lt. Gen. Walton H. Walker and Maj. Gen. William F. Dean .......... 113American Artillerymen Protecting Pusan Perimeter ................. 126Replacements Board a Transport Plane at a Japanese Air Base for Shipment to Korea ............................................... 128Maj. Gen. Edwin K. Wright ........................................ 140Maj. Gen. Hobart R. Gay .......................................... 140Rear Adm. James H. Doyle ......................................... 141A Russian-Made T-34 Tank Knocked Out in Taejon ................... 142Maj. Gen. Oliver P. Smith ........................................ 147Lt. Gen. Lemuel C. Shepherd ...................................... 151Vice Adm. C. Turner Joy .......................................... 152Admiral Arthur W. Radford Conferring With General MacArthur ...... 156Vice Adm. Dewey Struble .......................................... 172A Russian-Made 76-mm. Gun in Fortified Position on Wolmi Island .. 174Inch'on Railroad Station After Bombardment by U.N. Naval Vessels . 175LST's Unloading on Wolmi Island .................................. 176George C. Marshall ............................................... 180Rhee Expresses Appreciation to General MacArthur at Liberation Ceremonies ...................................................... 186Chou En-lai ...................................................... 198Secretary of the Army Frank Pace, Jr., Arrives at Seoul Airbase .. 201Maj. Gen. Leven C. Allen ......................................... 202Tanks and Infantrymen Pursue Communist-Led North Korean Forces ... 203U.S. Troops Pass Supply Wagons Abandoned by the North Koreans .... 204Minesweeper Blows Up in Wonsan Harbor ............................ 210Radford, MacArthur, Pace, and Bradley at Wake Island Conference .. 211President Truman ................................................. 213Equipment Air-Dropped in the Sunch'on Drop Zone .................. 217Canadian Troops Cross the Imjin River ............................ 226Troop Replacements From Thailand Arrive at Pusan ................. 227Brig. Gen. Paik Sun Yup .......................................... 234U.S. Men and Tanks Advance Through Hyesanjin ..................... 264Thanksgiving Day Services on Bank of Yalu River .................. 265Tracked Amphibious Vehicles Coming Off the Beach at Hungnam ...... 302USS Begor Ready To Load as Explosion Rips Harbor Installations ... 303Vehicles To Be Loaded Aboard Ships at Hungnam .................... 305Korean Refugees Slog Through Snow ................................ 309U.S. Infantrymen Enter the Walled City of Suwon .................. 334Maj. Gen. William O. Reeder and Maj. Gen. Maxwell D. Taylor Are Greeted by Maj. Gen. Henry I. Hodes ............................. 337Troops Pile Into Assault Boats To Cross the Han River ............ 355Directing Artillery Fire on Chinese Positions .................... 361General MacArthur Is Greeted by Lt. Gen. Matthew B. Ridgway ...... 362General MacArthur Receives Warm Welcome on his Return to the United States ................................................... 366General Ridgway .................................................. 375Lt. Gen. James A. Van Fleet ...................................... 376Buildings Burning in Village North of Ch'unch'on ................. 388Illustrations are from Department of Defense files.
